The Apollo Missions
Project Apollo was NASA’s second major effort to reach the Moon. Its primary objective was to land an astronaut crewed on its surface.
Before that could happen, several key advances had to be made first – and Gemini provided training for these advancements, including showing astronauts could endure long space flights.
Apollo 1
Apollo 1, now commonly referred to as Apollo 1, was being tested on Florida’s launch pad during rehearsal for its inaugural crewed mission. Something went wrong during that test and its cabin filled with pure oxygen, quickly setting everything ablaze in seconds and killing three astronauts: Grissom, White and Chaffee from smoke inhalation.
Fire was caused by combustible materials combined with an impractical design, making it hard to open the hatch quickly. NASA learned from their mistake, prioritizing noncombustible materials over schedule-oriented projects in their future endeavors.
Armstrong and Aldrin successfully reached the Moon despite some difficulties, using Eagle to dock to Collins’ command module and drive Liberty, a lunar rover, across 17 miles before collecting samples as they explored further parts of its surface. It marked the first mission using Lunar Rover technology which would enable future missions to explore deeper parts of lunar surface.
Apollo 2
Saturn V rocketed Apollo into orbit. Atop this giant rocket was the Command Module, designed to transport three astronauts. Additionally, two lunar modules would land on our natural satellite and return two astronauts back to CSM for continued lunar exploration.
Apollo 7, the inaugural Apollo mission, flew into low Earth orbit to test both the command module and lunar module, with Wally Schirra, Donn Eisele and Walter Cunningham serving as its crew members. They made history when they provided live television transmissions from space – the “Wally, Walt and Donn Show” soon becoming an immensely popular phenomenon.
Apollo 10 ended tragically when fire consumed its lunar module and killed Commander Thomas Stafford and Lunar Module Pilot Eugene Cernan, prompting NASA management to become ever more cautious: they “had much less trust in the Apollo systems than those operating them”, states geologist and former U.S. senator Harrison Schmitt.
Apollo 3
This mission marked an important step in human understanding of the Moon. For one thing, this was the first time humans drove a lunar rover and conducted numerous experiments proving Galileo’s theory that objects in space fall at an equal rate (without air resistance). They also collected 382 kilograms of samples including core samples and spectrographic studies from its surface.
The Apollo program utilized two spacecraft: the Command/Service Module and Lunar Module. While LM was intended to land on the Moon’s surface, CSM remained orbiting around it – this larger craft allowed three astronauts to travel together on missions.
Uncrewed test flights began in February 1966, and NASA managers felt confident enough in planning crewed missions despite Apollo 1’s disastrous fate. On April 28th 1966 during rehearsal for Apollo 1, fire broke out during rehearsal and tragically claimed Commander Virgil Grissom, Pilot Edward White and Engineer Roger Chaffee’s lives.
Apollo 4
The Apollo 4 mission served as an essential test of the spacecraft designed to carry astronauts to the Moon and fulfil President Kennedy’s eight-year goal: making history through human colonization of another world.
Armstrong and Aldrin utilized this mission to test out their lunar module Eagle after landing it in the Sea of Tranquility on July 20. After about two hours of moonwalking, they deployed seismometers to measure lunar quakes as well as laser retroreflectors used by astronomical observatories to measure distances between Earth and Moon, collecting 21.6 kilograms of samples and taking photographs along their travels.
The Saturn V rocket used for Apollo missions stood as tall as 36-story buildings and consisted of three stages. Within each stage was the Command Module, a capsule used by astronauts traveling between Earth and Moon under conditions more cramped than Mercury or Gemini programs; its Lunar Module landing module on the moon provided more room.
Apollo 5
NASA was ready to begin their next step after successfully completing the Mercury program of sending one-person crews into space: operating an Apollo spacecraft. While human lunar landing was still several years away, Apollo 5 served as an important systems test of what would eventually become their Lunar Module (LM).
On January 22, 1968, the Saturn IB rocket successfully launched and placed Lunar Module into lunar orbit. There were two key tests performed on Lunar Module; first was its ascent and descent engines which underwent a 39 second burn during what became known as “Fire in the Hole Test”, depicted on mission patches as such.
After checking out their systems aboard Eagle, Armstrong and Aldrin began their lunar walk at Station 1. Here they deployed seismometer and laser retroreflector instruments before collecting 21.6 kilograms of samples and surveying Camelot Crater and Shorty Craters for potential volcanic deposits.
Apollo 6
On April 4, 1968, Apollo Program’s second uncrewed flight launched from Earth was intended to demonstrate Saturn V’s capability of landing safely on a lunar trajectory. Unfortunately, severe vibrations during launch led to engine 2 malfunctioning and thus disallowing any return back home.
Engineers worked tirelessly to resolve an issue discovered shortly before liftoff, which turned out to be caused by a broken fuel pipe and caused Engine 2 to run out of gas, before successfully getting it back online and safely returning home.
The Apollo spaceflights culminated in July 1969 with Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin’s first manned landing on the Moon. Over eleven years, astronauts spent 382 days exploring its surface before gathering samples to bring back home for analysis by scientists here on Earth. Analysis of rocks found there has demonstrated that our Moon is lifeless – its formation was caused by another large planet striking our early planet during formation.
Apollo 7
The Apollo program ran from 1961 to 1972 and was the largest research and development effort ever attempted in peacetime history. Employing over 400,000 Americans at its peak, it comprised half of NASA’s spending. Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin became its famous protagonists upon landing on the Moon on July 21, 1969.
On October 11, 1968, Apollo 7 made history when its inaugural manned Apollo mission, Commander Donn Eisele and Lunar Module pilot Walter Schirra Jr, successfully entered Earth orbit for their maiden voyage together. They conducted tests of both spacecraft systems and supplies while taking panoramic pictures known as Earthrise to photograph our home planet from space.
Once separated from its mothership, the Lunar Module’s (LM) descent engine activated for Descent Orbit Insertion (or Pitch Over). Subsequently, its crew conducted one or more EVAs exploring lunar surface features and collecting samples between rest periods alternating with EVA exploration activities – providing crucial data that helped scientists confirm that Moon experienced catastrophic change 3.8 billion years ago.
Apollo 8
After uncrewed test flights and four crewed missions that demonstrated the safety of launch vehicles and spacecraft for astronauts, NASA decided to speed things up by embarking on an accelerated trip to the Moon. On December 21, 1968, Commander Frank Borman and Command Module Pilot James Lovell set sail aboard Apollo 8 from low Earth orbit for its Moon orbit mission; following an in-orbit detailed checkout of systems in second orbit, NASA officials reignited S-IVB third stage fuel for an initial translunar coast trajectory trajectory.
Mission participants traveled across the far side of the Moon where Lunar Module Pilot William Anders’ photograph of Earth became one of the most iconic images ever captured on film. After 21 days spent orbiting over 31 times over the Sea of Tranquility, their spacecraft returned back into Earth’s atmosphere and splashed down safely in the Pacific Ocean on July 24.
Apollo 9
The Apollo program ran from 1961 to 1972 and culminated with 12 spaceflights, six lunar landings and numerous lunar sample collection missions by astronauts studying the Moon to help scientists better understand its formation and that of our planet and natural satellite.
Apollo 4 (AS-501), launched November 9, 1967, reconfigured both the Saturn V rocket and command module for use during manned lunar exploration flights, as well as testing its heat shield against trans-lunar reentry reentry conditions.
James McDivitt, David Scott and Russell “Rusty” Schweickart performed docking maneuvers in Earth orbit to prepare for their lunar landing mission. To commemorate how each module looked when shipped to NASA, they gave each an amusing name (Gumdrop for command module and Spider for lunar module). Once separated from one another they conducted an extravehicular activity which ended sooner than anticipated.
The Apollo program consisted of human spaceflight missions which sent astronauts to land on the Moon and return home again, representing a monumental technological accomplishment and further expanding our knowledge of our solar system and beyond.
Each mission consisted of two parts: the command module, which provided living quarters and flight control; and the lunar module, which landed on the Moon to support astronauts during surface exploration.
Definition of Apollo Missions
NASA launched a series of human spaceflights known as Apollo missions during the 1960s that culminated with the first lunar landing. There were fourteen Apollo missions (Apollo 4-17), six of which involved landings. The Saturn V rocket powered these voyages to orbit and on to lunar surface; after landings the Lunar Module descended to lunar surface and returned back into lunar orbit with command module or back into Lunar Module or vice versa depending on mission requirements before returning astronauts back home on Lunar Module or Command Module respectively for return or returning back home before returning them home on LM before returning back into lunar orbit or leaving Earth orbit and Lunar Module or Command Module from lunar orbit to return home safely on previous flight path or via lunar landing to orbital or lunar surface before ascending again towards orbital rendezvous point before returning back into lunar orbit or back into orbital with Command Module or return before returning back into lunar orbit either/LM/Command Module before either returning them back home;
Apollo 11 and 12 conducted two of these historic landings; Apollo 13 and 14 conducted the remaining two.
Gemini spacecraft were used for initial Apollo flights; later the name “Apollo” was chosen in response to Soviet space achievements as a symbolic test of American superiority over rival governments such as Communist Russia. Apollo missions provided opportunities to showcase American superiority over Soviet space achievements while providing crewed missions as an answer for Soviet space achievements.
The Apollo Program profoundly shaped modern space exploration. Safety protocols established following the Apollo 1 cabin fire set the standard for modern mission planning, while international collaboration inspired by Apollo led to the International Space Station program. Furthermore, Apollo missions resulted in groundbreaking technologies and materials used today on commercial satellites as well as on board the International Space Station.
In 1972, the United States spent more money fighting Vietnam than sending astronauts to the Moon; three manned Apollo missions had to be cancelled as a result; however, their lessons remain relevant today with NASA working tirelessly on efforts to return humans to space travel beyond Earth orbit.
Apollo was costly due to the sheer scale of people involved. NASA doubled in staff during this era, while contractors working on it increased by fourfold or more. Key players were instrumental in the success of this program, such as chief designer Max Faget and flight operations director Chris Kraft. German immigrant Wernher von Braun also played an influential role as manager of rocket teams located in Huntsville, Alabama and Florida. Historical researchers often struggle with reconstructing Apollo costs accurately due to an absence of comprehensive, unpublished cost information. NASA’s congressional budget justification documents can serve as one source for reconstructing costs; these must then be supplemented with R&D spending data so as to produce an accurate timeline reconstruction.
Objectives of the Apollo Missions
As humanity commemorates 50 years since man first set foot on the moon, it is worthwhile reflecting upon its multifaceted objectives which altered humanity’s understanding of space. From President John F. Kennedy’s political goals to scientific experiments carried out during this mission’s experiments, there were multiple components to this program that saw 24 astronauts land on lunar surfaces and bring back samples for study back home.
In the early 1960s, the United States and Soviet Union engaged in an intense competition to explore space. MIT’s Instrumentation Laboratory played an essential role in equipping Apollo mission, following one-person Mercury program; their work enabled Apollo command and service module to carry three astronauts for lunar landing missions in future missions.
Apollo 13 chronicles its early years with three unmanned test flights to demonstrate the safety of a new spacecraft, followed by four crewed missions which culminated with one notable failure depicted in an award-winning movie.
Apollo missions later focused on multiple objectives, such as lunar surface science experiments, engineering evaluations of Apollo equipment, as well as deployment and activation of lunar surface scientific experiments.
At the lunar surface, crews collected rock samples for analysis before setting up a television camera to transmit signals back to Earth. Furthermore, they took extensive still and motion picture photographs of lunar terrain, scientific equipment deployed therein and of each other using still and motion picture cameras. Apollo 11 marked an historical event when Neil Armstrong famously took one step onto the moon, famously saying – as millions watched him do – “That’s one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind!” 530 million viewers witnessed that event live via television feed!
Apollo 12 was longer than previous missions due to tasks left incomplete after Apollo 13 was aborted, as well as completion of tasks interrupted by that flight’s abort. It marked the inaugural “J”-type mission capable of long stays on the Moon; astronauts Charles “Pete” Conrad and Alan Bean led their exploration systematically of Fra Mauro highlands near Crater Cone as well as Oceanus Procellarum region.
Key Achievements of the Apollo Missions
The Apollo program was an immense success and produced significant advances in rocketry and human spaceflight technologies. Furthermore, this groundbreaking endeavor increased our knowledge about both the Moon and solar system.
On 6 July 1969, the first Apollo mission successfully accomplished its central goal: landing humans on the Moon. Neil Armstrong made history when he placed his foot onto its surface and declared: “That’s one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind”. Over 500 million people saw this historic event unfold across their planet.
Not only did the astronauts explore the lunar surface, they collected rocks and samples that have provided scientists with invaluable insight into its formation. For instance, this mission confirmed that it formed hot and remained magmatically active for at least 800 million years; also showing how its surface is predominantly dusty rubble with very few solid rocks present.
Other significant achievements included the successful completion of a circumlunar flight, the first docking between Lunar Module and Command Module in Earth orbit, and successful operation of the lunar rover. The lunar rover enabled astronauts to drive over its surface for over 18 hours while conducting numerous experiments that tested Galileo’s theory that objects in a vacuum would all fall at equal rates–an experiment which proved true! MIT scientist Nafi Toksoz developed this seismometer which has greatly advanced our knowledge about both Moon structures and our understanding of Earth-Moon relationships.
the missions were also important tests of the technology necessary for conducting a manned spaceflight. Spacesuits must provide sufficient range of motion, good vision and protection from radiation while remaining lightweight materials for Command Module and Lunar Module construction were chosen; systems providing food, water, oxygen, power and heat had to be reliable yet simple for astronauts to operate; rockets had to land reliably so astronauts could safely travel between Earth and Moon; finally rockets carrying astronauts needed to land reliably when heading back home from Moon missions were essential as part of an inter-planetary trip.
Conclusions of the Apollo Missions
The Apollo missions provided invaluable scientific data on the Moon. They demonstrated its rich mineral composition – from basalts and breccias formed when magma cooled, to post-mission analysis showing no sign of life or organic material on its surface – as well as providing confidence to humanity that America had both the resolve and resources to lead mankind into new frontiers of space exploration.
NASA’s lunar exploration program ran from 1961 to 1972 and featured nine crewed flights and one unmanned test of its Command and Service Module (CSM). Each mission used the Saturn V rocket as its launch vehicle; CSM docked with Lunar Module before disengaging for lunar landing through firing of Ascent Engine on Lunar Module.
Apollo missions consisted of nine manned flights; five reached the Moon. Three missions had to be cancelled while Apollo 13 had to be aborted after its oxygen tank ruptured 56 hours into flight, incapacitating both pilot and command and control module (CSM).
At the first lunar landing, astronauts Armstrong and Aldrin deployed numerous instruments to collect samples and conduct various experiments. One such experiment, known as the Solar Wind Composition Experiment, consisted of an aluminum foil sheet deployed on a pole facing Sun to measure composition of solar wind reaching Moon. This helped scientists better understand its role in driving weather systems as well as shaping environments on planets such as Earth.
On their second lunar landing, astronauts Conrad and Bean left their lunar module twice for further exploration of its surface. One experiment they conducted involved receiving laser beams from astronomical observatories on Earth to measure distance between bodies as well as setting up devices to record moonquakes or meteor impacts even long after they returned home.
Apollo 16 marked the final Apollo mission and used a lunar rover piloted by Commander John Young and Lunar Module Pilot Charles Duke for 18 hours of driving across the Moon’s surface to collect 170 pounds of rock samples and data. On their first drive they conducted tests of Galileo’s hypothesis that objects dropped in vacuum without air resistance should fall at equal rates; when dropping a hammer and feather, both hit the ground at exactly the same time proving his theory correct.
NASA engineers spent decades planning for and developing their Apollo missions, which involved many complex steps such as launching on a Saturn V rocket, sending astronauts into low Earth orbit, docking their command module with the lunar module, and returning home safely.
On July 20, 1969, Armstrong and Aldrin successfully landed the Eagle in the Sea of Tranquility for a two and half hour moonwalk.
The Apollo 1 Mission
In January 1967, tragedy struck during a preflight test of the Apollo Command Module when it caught fire and claimed Commander Virgil Grissom, Senior Pilot Edward White and Pilot Roger Chaffee’s lives. This tragedy sent shockwaves through the space program, forcing major redesign efforts of many systems within it.
NASA engineers had insisted on operating the CM with an atmosphere composed of pure oxygen – an extreme fire risk in Earth’s gravity. Unfortunately, pad technicians took an agonizing 17 seconds to open its doors – too late to save astronauts inside.
Changes that resulted from this revision included installing a single-piece hatch that opened outward easily. Pressurizing with an equal mix of oxygen and nitrogen was introduced, as were removal of all flammable materials; safety became an increased priority – something we would learn again during Challenger and Columbia disasters of 1986 and 2003.
Apollo 2 Mission
On this Apollo 2 mission, astronauts collected moon rocks and soil specimens and conducted scientific experiments including seismograph for measuring “moonquakes,” laser ranging retroreflector to determine exact distance of Moon from Earth as well as iconic Earthrise image taken during landing mission.
Armstrong and Aldrin completed a full dress rehearsal before they undocked Eagle from Collins and began its powered descent toward the surface of the Moon, eventually reaching its Sea of Tranquility after just two hours of descent.
Apollo 14 marked the first lunar landing since Apollo 1, when an oxygen tank fire killed all seven crewmembers during a prelaunch test. Led by Commander Jim Lovell and Lunar Module Pilot Fred Haise, they would explore Fra Mauro region of Moon while Command Module Pilot Ken Mattingly remained orbiting aboard Odyssey spacecraft.
Apollo 3 Mission
The Apollo program not only led humans to the moon, but it also revolutionized our world. NASA has pioneered over 6,300 technologies that range from cordless power drills to computer joysticks used to control Hubble Space Telescope.
Apollo 1, originally designated AS-204, was the inaugural test flight of Saturn V rocket and Command/Service Module (CSM). On January 27, 1967, three astronauts — Roger Chaffee, Virgil “Gus” Grissom, and Edward White — died when fire engulfed their launch pad; consequently, this mission was renamed in their honor and eventually known as Apollo 1.
Apollo 10 astronauts Thomas Stafford, John Young and Eugene Cernan became close to the moon on their mission which served as a practice run for Apollo 11. On July 20, 1969, Neil Armstrong and Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin became the first humans ever to step foot onto its surface.
Apollo 4 Mission
Before NASA could conduct any manned missions to the moon, they first had to demonstrate the Saturn rocket family could safely carry human passengers. Testing began uncrewed in 1966 and Apollo’s maiden voyage landed on the lunar surface in 1969.
Apollo 4’s unmanned test flight confirmed the Saturn V rocket’s ability to successfully launch astronauts into Earth orbit and return them safely, as well as providing engineers with an up-close look at its heat shield that would protect astronauts during their return home.
Apollo 17 marked the inaugural use of a lunar module during an Apollo mission, providing astronauts with three days on the Moon before returning home. Command module pilot Ronald Evans and lunar module pilot Harrison Schmitt — initially trained as a scientist before becoming an astronaut — explored craters, boulders and mountains — including 22 hours and 4 minutes of EVA exploration time that is one of longest ever undertaken during an Apollo mission.
Apollo 5 Mission
Apollo 5 marked the first time an unmanned Lunar Module flight had ever been performed in space, testing both its navigation systems and engine operation in an actual environment. Furthermore, it conducted what came to be known as “fire in the hole” testing – this being depicted on its insignia patch.
Apollo 17’s iconic photo of Earth from 28,000 miles became an instantaneous icon of space travel, but it only signaled a new era in manned space exploration.
Armstrong and Aldrin achieved something no human had previously accomplished: they walked on the moon and left lasting evidence behind that can still be seen today. Furthermore, this mission helped scientists better understand its history.
Apollo 6 Mission
After Apollo 4 and 5, NASA decided that their next step should be sending astronauts all the way to our natural satellite, where they would circle it while taking photos – including iconic Earthrise shots that helped foster environmental activism.
Apollo 6, also known as AS-502 among spacecraft fleet, was intended as an initial test of Saturn V’s capability of sending a Command and Service Module (CM) to lunar orbit. Unfortunately, however, launch issues plagued this mission from the very start.
Violent vibrations produced by the Saturn V’s massive engines caused it to behave unexpectedly, prompting engineers working for NASA to find solutions – known as POGO or “pogo effect.” They eventually managed to correct it so quickly that an Apollo 7 mission was launched just eight months later!
Apollo 7 Mission
NASA was in need of something positive after the Apollo 1 launchpad fire of January 1967, so they utilized Apollo 7 – with commander Walter Schirra as command module pilot, Lunar Module pilot Walt Cunningham piloting and Command Module pilot Donn Eisele leading. It proved a confidence builder.
Their mission was to test both the new Command/Service Module (CSM), an enormous, cone-shaped spacecraft with an inner pressure vessel and outer shell, as well as its launch vehicle – Saturn 1B rocket – and perform rendezvous tests using S-IVB final stage, just like when picking up Lunar Module.
At a time when images from space were rare, the crew made the first ever live television broadcast from space. Their broadcasts revealed how they lived and worked aboard their cramped spacecraft; even showing handwritten cards reading “Keep Those Cards and Letters Coming In, Folks”. That proved very helpful to NASA.
Apollo 8 Mission
On December 21, Frank Borman, James Lovell and William Anders became the first humans to leave low Earth orbit and fly around our natural satellite. Their mission had an accelerated timeline due to President Kennedy’s death and was meant as a dress rehearsal for Apollo 11.
After four minutes of using their service module engine, astronauts successfully entered lunar orbit. Rolling their spacecraft around to observe it from below, they were stunned to witness a lunar landscape composed of pitted surfaces covered in craters upon craters as well as rifts, mares and rilles gliding by below them – they had never imagined such beauty existed within our solar system!
NASA had provided them with experience through their Mercury and Gemini programs, which sent one-person crews into orbit to test maneuvers and equipment in preparation for Apollo lunar landing missions. Each crew occupied both a command module and Lunar Module from which they later separated to land on the moon.
Apollo 9 Mission
As reports and concerns over the Apollo program mounted, astronauts James Lovell, Frank Borman and William Anders completed an arduous 10-day mission by orbiting the Moon ten times during that period. Their crew also conducted test firings of their docked service module propulsion system as well as taking dramatic in-flight Hasselblad photographs during their voyage.
This was the inaugural maneuvering of a Lunar Module (LM) in space and tested its ascent/descent engines and crew transfer procedures while docking maneuvers were being completed. Although most of it went according to plan, Command Module Pilot Dave Scott and Lunar Module Pilot Russell Schweickart had to modify a scheduled spacewalk due to nausea issues arising during its execution.
Apollo 10 Mission
The Apollo 10 mission was a test flight of the Apollo spacecraft and lunar module. It marked the first time a complete Apollo spacecraft operated in lunar orbit. Objectives included rendezvousing with Lunar Module flight systems as well as testing programmed trajectories.
Thomas Stafford and Gene Cernan, commander and Lunar Module Pilot for Apollo 10, respectively, were highly experienced spaceflight veterans. Stafford had previously piloted Gemini 3 and Gemini X spacecraft respectively while Cernan served as command module commander during a joint US/Soviet Apollo-Soyuz test project in 1975.
Initial progress on this mission went smoothly. The crew even got to experience a unique feat for space travel–the first color video broadcast from space on a standard 525-line, 30-frame-per-second color television system.